Chapter 38 of the Laozi

The meaning I have given to the words 上德 shàngdé, literally "high virtue," is that of most interpreters. H believes they refer to the Saints of high antiquity.

不德 bùdé, i.e., "They do not consider themselves virtuous." A explains 不德 bùdé as "they do not show their virtue."

All they can do is not to lose their virtue. 苏辙 Sū Zhé: Men of inferior merit know that virtue is honored. They strive to acquire it and do not lose it.

无为而无以为 wúwéi ér wú yǐ wéi, i.e., 无欲 wú yù 心 xīn 有德 yǒu dé: "They do not think about practicing virtue; they do so naturally."

H: What makes men of superior virtue possess virtue is that their virtue emanates from non-action (i.e., they practice it unconsciously and without intention) and they do not boast about it. This interpreter explains the word 以为 yǐwéi as 恃 shì "to rely on, to boast of (the practice of virtue)." Although he analyzes the phrase differently than B, he arrives at the same meaning. E renders the words 无以为 wú yǐ wéi as nihil agendo agit illud, i.e., "he practices virtue without doing anything for it."

无为而有以为 wúwéi ér yǒu yǐ wéi, i.e., 有心有德 yǒu xīn yǒu dé: "They have the intention to practice virtue."

H explains the word 以为 yǐwéi as "to boast of 恃 shì," as in the previous sentence. What makes, he says, men of inferior virtue not possess virtue is that their virtue comes from deliberate action, that they glory in their merit, and boast of the practice of virtue.

E: 有以为 yǒu yǐ wéi, i.e., 有为为之 yǒu wéi wéi zhī "They make efforts to practice it."

苏辙 Sū Zhé: After speaking of superior virtue and inferior virtue, 老子 Lǎozǐ only mentions superior goodness, superior righteousness, and says nothing about inferior goodness, inferior righteousness. Here is the reason: Inferior virtue stands between goodness and righteousness, but the inferior degree of goodness and righteousness does not deserve to be mentioned.

刘歆 Liú Xīn: The man of superior goodness practices it without applying himself and as if unconsciously. But this is not the case with righteousness; to follow it, one must first examine what is good or bad, just or unjust. Hence, one cannot practice it without action, i.e., without thinking, without intention.

A: Princes of superior courtesy create the rites, establish regulations, and determine the nature and order of ceremonies that can enhance royal majesty. But when the flowers of courtesy are abundant and its fruit has withered (i.e., when courtesy consists only of specious appearances and the sincerity of feelings has weakened), they tire others with deceptive displays, and with each act they move away from the Tao. It is impossible for them to be responded to with marks of respect.

A: Then the superiors go to war with the inferiors. This is why they use force (lit. "they extend a threatening arm") to force them to honor them.

A: As soon as the Tao weakened, virtue arose in the world; as soon as virtue weakened, humanity and affection appeared; as soon as humanity weakened, righteousness shone brightly. As soon as righteousness weakened, people began to show studied politeness and to send gifts of jade and silk fabric.

E: 老子 Lǎozǐ only arrives at courtesy after descending four times below the Tao. Indeed, he descends from the Tao to virtue, from virtue to justice, from justice to righteousness, from righteousness to rites or to courtesy. Courtesy is the weakest of social virtues; one cannot descend lower. If one descends further, one enters the path of disorder.

One cannot say that courtesy necessarily excludes uprightness and sincerity; but it is only the weakest, most superficial part. It is not disorder, but it is the principle of disorder. Indeed, if one wishes to show respect through a humble attitude, sincerity through kind words, when one multiplies these demonstrations, the feeling of uprightness and sincerity weakens day by day.

A: Not to know and say that one knows is called 先知 xiānzhī.

E explains the same expression by 先知 xiānzhī, "the faculty to know things in advance." This faculty does not necessarily exclude the Tao, but it is only its flower; it is not ignorance, but the beginning of ignorance. The true study of the Tao consists of nourishing one's spirits. Although the brilliance (of the Saint's virtue) can illuminate the universe, he keeps it within himself. As for these men who use their intellectual faculties to predict the peace or disorder of states, to foretell misfortune or happiness, they can indeed excite the admiration of the age; but when they look inward, this faculty serves them for nothing. They tire their spirits by occupying themselves with external things; from there arise trouble and error. This is why 老子 Lǎozǐ says: It is the beginning of ignorance.

苏辙 Sū Zhé: The holy man penetrates all beings with a wonderful intuition. Truth and falsehood, good and evil, shine before him like in a mirror. Nothing escapes his perspicacity. Ordinary men see nothing beyond the reach of their eyes, hear nothing beyond the reach of their ears, think nothing beyond the reach of their mind. They walk blindly among beings; they use their faculties to acquire knowledge, and only by chance do they glimpse some of its light. They believe themselves enlightened and do not see that they begin to reach the peak of ignorance. They rejoice at having acquired what is lowest, basest in the world; and they forget what is most sublime. They love the superficial and neglect the solid; they pick the flower and reject the fruit. Only a great man knows how to reject one and keep the other.

E: Several authors reason thus: Humanity, justice, rites, laws, are the instruments that a holy man (i.e., a perfect prince) uses to govern the empire. But 老子 Lǎozǐ wants to abandon humanity and justice, to renounce rites and laws. If such a doctrine were put into practice, how could the empire not fall into disorder? Indeed, among the literati of the following centuries, some, seduced by the taste for abstract discussions, neglected the acts of real life; others, carried away by the love of retreat, forgot the laws of morality. The empire imitated their example, and soon society fell into turmoil and disorder. This is what happened under the 晋 Jìn dynasty. This misfortune took its source in the doctrine of 老子 Lǎozǐ.

Those who reason thus are not capable of understanding the purpose of 老子 Lǎozǐ, nor of penetrating the true cause of the vices that broke out under the 晋 Jìn. The men of the 晋 Jìn did not follow the doctrine of 老子 Lǎozǐ; the troubles of that time had another cause. It is not without reason that 老子 Lǎozǐ teaches to leave humanity and justice, to renounce rites and study. If men must leave humanity and justice, it is to venerate the Tao and virtue; if they must renounce rites and study, it is to return to uprightness and sincerity. As for the men of the 晋 Jìn, I see that they abandoned humanity and justice; I do not see that they venerated the Tao and virtue. I see that they renounced rites and study; I do not see that they returned to uprightness and sincerity.

From the 太康 Tàikāng period (280 AD) to the flight to the left bank of the 江 Jiāng river, scholars generally sought to acquire eminent reputation; they abandoned themselves to idle repose; they ran after power and wealth, and were passionate about music and the arts. The taste for abstract discussions and the love of solitude were nothing compared to these guilty excesses that disturbed the Jin family, and it would be impossible to find the cause in the work of 老子 Lǎozǐ.